Nephrology

Acute Kidney Injury · Chronic Kidney Disease · Glomerular Disease · Inherited, Cystic & Tubular · Renal Stones & Obstruction · Transplantation & Dialysis · Electrolytes, Acid-Base & Fluids · Urology & Neoplasms · Miscellaneous

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Acute Kidney Injury

Nephrotoxicity Due to Contrast Media — Definition: 25% rise in creatinine within 3 days of intravascular contrast (occurs 2–5 days post-administration).
Acute Kidney Injury: ATN vs Pre-Renal Uraemia — Urine sodium: pre-renal < 20 mmol/L, ATN > 40 mmol/L
Rhabdomyolysis — Rhabdomyolysis Rhabdomyolysis will typically feature in the exam as a patient who has had a fall or prolonged epileptic
Acute Kidney Injury: a Very Basic Introduction — Acute kidney injury (AKI, formerly acute renal failure) is a rapid fall in renal function; staged by KDIGO on the rise in creatinine or the fall in urine output.
Acute Interstitial Nephritis — Acute interstitial nephritis Acute interstitial nepnrms Acute interstitial nephritis accounts for 25% of drug-induced ac
Pre-Renal Uraemia vs ATN: Urinary Indices — Urine sodium: pre-renal < 20 mmol/L, ATN > 40 mmol/L

Chronic Kidney Disease

Chronic Kidney Disease: Anaemia — Reduced erythropoietin levels — the most significant contributing factor
Chronic Kidney Disease: Egfr & Staging — Serum creatinine alone may not accurately reflect renal function due to differences in muscle mass, ethnicity, age, and
Chronic Kidney Disease: Hypertension — Chronic kidney disease: hypertension The majority of patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) will require more than t
Erythropoietin — Erythropoietin Erythropoietin is a haematopoietic growth factor that stimulates the production of erythrocytes. Erythrop
Chronic Kidney Disease: Bone Disease — Chronic kidney disease: bone disease Basic problems in chronic kidney disease
Chronic Kidney Disease: Proteinuria — Chronic kidney disease: proteinuria Proteinuria is an important marker of chronic kidney disease, especially for diabeti

Glomerular Disease

Nephrotic Syndrome — Nephrotic syndrome Triad of:
Membranous Glomerulonephritis — Membranous glomerulonephritis Membranous glomerulonephritis is the commonest type of glomerulonephritis in adults and is
Glomerulonephritides: Overview — Nephritic syndrome: haematuria, hypertension, and variable proteinuria
Goodpasture's Syndrome — Goodpasture's syndrome Goodpasture's syndrome is rare condition associated with both pulmonary haemorrhage and rapidly p
Haemolytic Uraemic Syndrome — Haemolytic uraemic syndrome Haemolytic uraemic syndrome is generally seen in young children and produces a triad of:
Membranoproliferative Glomerulonephritis — Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis Overview
Minimal Change Disease — Minimal change disease Minimal change disease nearly always presents as nephrotic syndrome, accounting for 75% of cases
Thin Basement Membrane Disease — Thin basement membrane disease An inherited disorder of type IV collagen that causes thinning of the basement membrane.
Henoch-Schonlein Purpura — Henoch-Schonlein purpura Henoch-Schonlein purpura (HSP) is an IgA mediated small vessel vasculitis. There is a degree of
Glomerulonephritis and Low Complement — Glomerulonephritis and low complement Disorders associated with glomerulonephritis and low serum complement levels
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: Renal Involvement — Systemic lupus erythematosus: renal complications Lupus nephritis is a severe manifestation of systemic lupus erythemato
Reflux Nephropathy — Reflux nephropathy Overview
Iga Nephropathy — IgA nephropathy (also known as Berger's disease) is the commonest cause of glomerulonephritis worldwide
Post-Streptococcal Glomerulonephritis — Typically occurs 7–14 days after infection with a group A beta-haemolytic Streptococcus (usually Streptococcus pyogenes)
Alport's Syndrome — Alport's syndrome Alport's syndrome is usually inherited in an X-linked dominant pattern*. It is due to a defect in the
Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis — Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis is a term used to describe a rapid loss of
Xanthogranulomatous Pyelonephritis — A rare chronic granulomatous disease that results in a non-functioning kidney

Inherited, Cystic & Tubular

ADPKD (Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease) — ADPKD Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is the most common inherited cause of kidney disease, affecti
Fanconi Syndrome — Fanconi syndrome Fanconi syndrome describes a generalised reabsorptive disorder of renal tubular transport in the proxim
Cystinuria — Cystinuria Cystinuria is an autosomal recessive disorder characterised by the formation of recurrent renal stones. It is
ARPKD (Autosomal Recessive Polycystic Kidney Disease) — ARPKD Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD) is much less common than autosomal dominant disease (ADPKD).
ADPKD: Features — ADPKD: features Features

Renal Stones & Obstruction

Renal Stones: Risk Factors — Renal stones: risk factors Risk factors
Renal Stones: Management — BAUS 2018: NSAID is analgesia of choice for renal colic (consider CV risk of diclofenac/ibuprofen; CKS: IM diclofenac fo
Renal Stones: Imaging — Calcium oxalate stones: ~40% of stones, radio-opaque on x-ray
Retroperitoneal Fibrosis — Retroperitoneal fibrosis Lower back/flank pain is the most common presenting feature. Fever and lower limb oedema is als

Transplantation & Dialysis

Renal Transplant: HLA Typing and Graft Failure — Renal transplant: HLA typing and graft failure The human leucocyte antigen (HLA) system is the name given to the major h
Plasma Exchange — Plasma exchange Indications for plasma exchange (also known as plasmapheresis)
Renal Transplant: Immunosuppression — Renal transplant: immunosuppression Example regime
Peritoneal Dialysis — Peritoneal dialysis Peritoneal dialysis (PD) is a form of renal replacement therapy. It is sometimes used as a stop-gap
Arteriovenous Fistulas — Direct connections between an artery and a vein, generally created surgically to provide access for haemodialysis

Electrolytes, Acid-Base & Fluids

Metabolic Acidosis — Metabolic acidosis Metabolic acidosis is commonly classified according to the anion gap. This can be calculated by: (Na+
Hyperkalaemia: Management — Untreated hyperkalaemia → life-threatening arrhythmias; address precipitants (e.g. AKI) and stop aggravating drugs (e.g.
Spironolactone — Spironolactone is an aldosterone antagonist which acts in the cortical collecting duct. Indications
Fluid Therapy — NICE (2013) maintenance fluid guidance, per 24 hours: 25–30 mL/kg water, ~1 mmol/kg each of sodium, potassium and chlori
Diabetes Insipidus — Diabetes insipidus Diabetes insipidus (Dl) is a condition characterised by either a deficiency of antidiuretic hormone,
Anion Gap — Anion gap The anion gap is calculated by: (sodium + potassium) - (bicarbonate + chloride) A normal anion gap is 8-14 mmo

Urology & Neoplasms

Epididymo-Orchitis — Epididymo-orchitis Epididymo-orchitis describes an infection of the epididymis +/- testes resulting in pain and swelling
Renal Cell Cancer — Also known as hypernephroma; accounts for ~85% of primary renal neoplasms; arises from proximal renal tubular epithelium
Testicular Cancer — Testicular cancer Testicular cancer is the most common malignancy in men aged 20-30 years. Around 95% of cases of testic
Prostate Cancer: Management — Localised disease (T1/T2): treatment depends on life expectancy and patient choice — options include active monitoring/w
Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms in Men — Lower urinary tract symptoms in men Lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) in men are very common and are present in the ma
Haematuria — Haematuria The management of patients with haematuria is often difficult due to the absence of widely followed guideline

Miscellaneous

Renal Vascular Disease — Renal vascular disease Renal vascular disease is most commonly due to atherosclerosis (> 95% of patients). It is associa
Amyloidosis — Amyloidosis Overview
Fibromuscular Dysplasia — Fibromuscular dysplasia Renal artery stenosis secondary to atherosclerosis accounts for around 90% of renal vascular dis
HIV: Renal Involvement — HIV: renal involvement Renal involvement in HIV patients may occur as a consequence of treatment or the virus itself. Pr
Diabetic Nephropathy: Stages — Stage 1 (hyperfiltration): increased GFR, potentially reversible