Endocrinology
Diabetes & Hypoglycaemia · Thyroid · Adrenal & Pituitary · Calcium & Parathyroid · Reproductive & Gonadal · Metabolic & Miscellaneous
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Diabetes & Hypoglycaemia
- MODY (Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young) — due to a defect in the HNF-1 beta gene
- Sglt-2 Inhibitors — SGLT-2 inhibitors SGLT-2 inhibitors reversibly inhibit sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT-2) in the renal proximal co
- Diabetic Neuropathy — Diabetic neuropathy Diabetes typically leads to sensory loss and not motor loss in peripheral neuropathy. Painful diabet
- Insulinoma — lnsulinoma An insulinoma is a neuroendocrine tumour deriving mainly from pancreatic Islets of Langerhans cells Basics
- Prediabetes and Impaired Glucose Regulation — Prediabetes and impaired glucose regulation Prediabetes is a term which is increasingly used where there is impaired glu
- Hyperosmolar Hyperglycaemic State — HHS: medical emergency, typically elderly T2DM, onset over days; higher mortality than DKA; may be first presentation of
- Diabetic Ketoacidosis — DKA: uncontrolled lipolysis → excess free fatty acids → ketone bodies; precipitants: infection, missed insulin, MI; mort
- Insulin Stress Test — Insulin stress test Basics
- Dapagliflozin — Dapagliflozin is a newer drug for the treatment of diabetes. It is a member of the sodium-glucose transport protein 2 (S
- Impaired Fasting Glucose & Impaired Glucose Tolerance — Impaired fasting glucose and impaired glucose tolerance There are two main types of IGR:
- Gastrointestinal Autonomic Neuropathy — Gastrointestinal autonomic neuropathy: gastroparesis
- Diabetic Ketoacidosis: Complications of Treatment — Complications of DKA and its treatment.
- Insulin: Types & Regimens — Fluid replacement alone with 0.9% sodium chloride solution will result in a gradual decline of blood glucose and osmolar
Thyroid
- Subacute (De Quervain's) Thyroiditis — Subacute (De Quervain's) thyroiditis Subacute thyroiditis (also known as De Quervain's thyroiditis and subacute granulom
- Toxic Multinodular Goitre — Toxic multinodular goitre Toxic multinodular goitre describes a thyroid gland that contains a number of autonomously fun
- Thyroid Cancer — Thyroid cancer Features of hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism are not commonly seen in patients with thyroid malignancies
- Sick Euthyroid Syndrome — Sick euthyroid syndrome In sick euthyroid syndrome (now referred to as non-thyroidal illness) it is often said that ever
- Thyroid Agenesis — Thyroid agenesis is a cause of congenital hypothyroidism, usually picked up on newborn screening
- Graves' Disease — This is a case of hyperthyroidism due to Graves' disease. Graves' disease may present first or become worse during the p
- Carbimazole — Carbimazole Propranolol Fine needle aspiration biopsy of the thyroid gland Intravenous corticosteroids This patient has
- De Quervain's Thyroiditis — De Quervain's (subacute) thyroiditis is a painful, tender goitre, usually following a viral illness
- Papillary Cancer of the Thyroid — Papillary carcinoma is the most common type of thyroid cancer
- Radioiodine — Radioiodine, block-and-replace regime, surgery and anti-thyroid drug titration regime are the treatment options for thyr
Adrenal & Pituitary
- Acromegaly: Management — Acromegaly: management Trans-sphenoidal surgery is the first-line treatment for acromegaly in the majority of patients D
- Cushing's Syndrome: Investigations — Cushing's syndrome: investigations Investigations are divided into confirming Cushing's syndrome and then localising the
- Acromegaly: Features — Acromegaly: features In acromegaly there is excess growth hormone secondary to a pituitary adenoma in over 95% of cases.
- Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia — Multiple endocrine neoplasia The table below summarises the three main types of multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN). MEN
- Renin:Aldosterone Ratio — A plasma aldosterone/renin ratio is the first-line investigation in suspected primary hyperaldosteronism
- Bilateral Renal Artery Stenosis — Bilateral renal artery stenosis Coarctation of the aorta Phaeochromocytoma Primary hyperaldosteronism Primary hyperaldos
Calcium & Parathyroid
- Parathyroid Adenoma — The PTH level in primary hyperparathyroidism may be normal
- Pseudohypoparathyroidism — Pseudohypoparathyroidism
Reproductive & Gonadal
- 47,XYY Karyotype — 47,XYY (Jacobs syndrome) affects around 1 in 1000 males and results from an extra Y chromosome
- Klinefelter's Syndrome — Klinefelter's syndrome Klinefelter's syndrome is associated with karyotype 47, XXY. Features
- Gynaecomastia — Gynaecomastia Gynaecomastia describes an abnormal amount of breast tissue in males and is usually caused by an increased
- Gynaecomastia: Drug Causes — Drug causes of gynaecomastia
Metabolic & Miscellaneous
- Corticosteroids: Side-Effects — Corticosteroids: side-effects Glucocorticoid side-effects
- Diabetes Mellitus: Management of Type 2 — NICE NG28 (Feb 2026) changed first-line therapy: offer modified-release metformin PLUS an SGLT2 inhibitor as first-line
- Gitelman's Syndrome — Gitelman's syndrome is due to a defect in the thiazide-sensitive Na+ Cl- transporter in the distal convoluted tubule. Fe
- Pregnancy: Diabetes Mellitus — Pregnancy: diabetes mellitus Diabetes mellitus may be a pre-existing problem or develop during pregnancy, gestational di
- Meglitinides — Meglitinides Meglitinides (e.g. repaglinide, nateglinide)
- Hyperkalaemic Metabolic Alkalosis — Cushing's syndrome classically causes a hypokalaemic metabolic alkalosis
- Bartter's Syndrome — Bartter's syndrome is associated with normotension
- Hypothyroidism — Hypothyroidism: key points